Masculine gender role mediates sex and mindfulness skills in predicting student athletes’ sport-related anxiety and dispositional flow

Errin Price; Luci Martin; Megan Granquist; Brent Blumenthal

doi:10.15561/20755279.2025.0308

Authors

Errin Price University of La Verne https://orcid.org/0009-0009-1059-6905
Luci Martin University of La Verne https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7805-7774
Megan Granquist University of La Verne https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9891-8336
Brent Blumenthal University of La Verne https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1409-7604

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.15561/20755279.2025.0308

Keywords:

student athletes, mindfulness, gender role, sex, sport-related anxiety, flow

Abstract

Background and Study Aim. Reduced sport-related anxiety, increased dispositional flow, and greater use of mindfulness skills appear to be essential psychological components for success in student athletes. Decades of sport psychology research have identified gender differences in psychological characteristics associated with sport performance in athletes, with little attention paid to the socialized contributions of sex. The aim of this study was to determine whether gender role better explains the relationships between sex and psychological sport outcomes. Material and Methods. The current study examined Division III student athletes (N = 100; 60% female; 46% White/European American). They ranged in age from 18 years to 23 years (M = 19.4, SD = 1.17, range = 18.0 - 23.0), with 1 to 6 years of experience in collegiate athletics (M = 2.45, SD = 1.44, range = 1-6). Participants completed self-report measures of gender role, mindfulness, sport-related anxiety, and dispositional flow. Results. While female athletes reported greater sport-related anxiety and less dispositional flow than male athletes, masculine gender role mediated the relationship between sex and sport-related anxiety, and sex and dispositional flow. Further, masculine gender role mediated the relationships between two mindfulness skills (acting with awareness and acceptance without judgment), and sport-related anxiety and dispositional flow. Feminine gender role did not serve a mediating function between variables. Conclusions. These findings suggest that socialization of sex, rather than sex assigned at birth, better explains gender differences reported in the literature. Future research needs to include measures of both sex and gender role to adequately examine gender differences.

Author Biographies

Errin Price, University of La Verne

Dr.; errinprice@gmail.com; La Verne, USA.

Luci Martin, University of La Verne

Dr., Professor; lmartin@laverne.edu; ; La Verne, USA.

Megan Granquist, University of La Verne

Dr., Professor; mgranquist@laverne.edu; La Verne, USA.

Brent Blumenthal, University of La Verne

Dr.; brent.blumenthal@laverne.edu; La Verne, USA.

References

American Psychological Association. Publication manual of the American Psychological Association. 7th ed. Washington (DC): American Psychological Association; 2020.

Eagly AH, Wood W. Social Role Theory. In: Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology, 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road, London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom: SAGE Publications Ltd; 2012. p. 458–476. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n49

Hyde JS. The gender similarities hypothesis. American Psychologist, 2005;60(6): 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.6.581

Ford J, Ildefonso K, Jones M, Arvinen-Barrow M. Sport-related anxiety: current insights. Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine, 2017;8: 205–212. https://doi.org/10.2147/OAJSM.S125845

Jackson SA, Thomas PR, Marsh HW, Smethurst CJ. Relationships between Flow, Self-Concept, Psychological Skills, and Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 2001;13(2): 129–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/104132001753149865

Smith RE, Smoll FL, Cumming SP, Grossbard JR. Measurement of Multidimensional Sport Performance Anxiety in Children and Adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2006;28(4): 479–501. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.28.4.479

Smith RE, Smoll FL, Cumming SP. Effects of a Motivational Climate Intervention for Coaches on Young Athletes’ Sport Performance Anxiety. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2007;29(1): 39–59. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.29.1.39

Jackson SA, Eklund RC. Assessing Flow in Physical Activity: The Flow State Scale–2 and Dispositional Flow Scale–2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2002;24(2): 133–150. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.24.2.133

Stavrou NA, Jackson SA, Zervas Y, Karteroliotis K. Flow Experience and Athletes’ Performance with Reference to the Orthogonal Model of Flow. The Sport Psychologist, 2007;21(4): 438–457. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.21.4.438

Abrahamsen FE, Roberts GC, Pensgaard AM. Achievement goals and gender effects on multidimensional anxiety in national elite sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 2008;9(4): 449–464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.06.005

Correia M, Rosado A. Anxiety in Athletes: Gender and Type of Sport Differences. International Journal of Psychological Research, 2019;12(1): 9–17. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.3552

Ahmed MDD, Ho WKY, Van Niekerk RL, Begum S. Will-to-Win, Self-Esteem, and Dispositional Flow State among adolescent athletes in India - a path analysis and comparisons by gender and level of achievement. African Journal for Physical Activity and Health Sciences (AJPHES), 2020;26(4): 448–467. https://doi.org/10.37597/ajphes.2020.26.4.8

Liu W, Ji L, Watson JC. Dispositional Differences of Collegiate Athletes’ Flow State: A Cross-Cultural Comparison. The Spanish Journal of Psychology. 2015;18:E13. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2015.12

Glass CR, Spears CA, Perskaudas R, Kaufman KA. Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement: Randomized Controlled Trial of a Mental Training Program With Collegiate Athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2019;13(4): 609–628. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2017-0044

Dehghani M, Delbar Saf A, Vosoughi A, Tebbenouri G, Ghazanfari Zarnagh H. Effectiveness of the mindfulness-acceptance-commitment-based approach on athletic performance and sports competition anxiety: a randomized clinical trial. Electronic Physician, 2018;10(5): 6749–6755. https://doi.org/10.19082/6749

Sánchez-Sánchez LC, Franco C, Amutio A, García-Silva J, González-Hernández J. Influence of Mindfulness on Levels of Impulsiveness, Moods and Pre-Competition Anxiety in Athletes of Different Sports. Healthcare, 2023;11(6): 898. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11060898

Carraça B, Serpa S, Rosado A, Palmi Guerrero J, Magalhaes C. Mindful compassion training on elite soccer: effects, roles and associations on flow, psychological distress and thought suppression. Rev Iberoam Psicol Ejerc Deporte. 2019;14(2):141–149.

Kaufman KA, Glass CR, Arnkoff DB. Evaluation of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE): A New Approach to Promote Flow in Athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2009;3(4): 334–356. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.3.4.334

Baer RA. Mindfulness training as a clinical intervention: A conceptual and empirical review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2003;10(2): 125–143. https://doi.org/10.1093/clipsy.bpg015

Baer RA, Smith GT, Allen KB. Assessment of Mindfulness by Self-Report: The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 2004;11(3): 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104268029

Cathcart S, McGregor M, Groundwater E. Mindfulness and Flow in Elite Athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 2014;8(2): 119–141. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2014-0018

Amemiya R, Sakairi Y. The role of self-compassion in athlete mindfulness and burnout: Examination of the effects of gender differences. Personality and Individual Differences, 2020;166: 110167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110167

Bulğay C, Tingaz EO, Bayraktar I, Çetin E. Athletic performance and mindfulness in track and field athletes. Current Psychology, 2022;41(7): 4482–4489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00967-y

Upchurch DM, Johnson PJ. Gender Differences in Prevalence, Patterns, Purposes, and Perceived Benefits of Meditation Practices in the United States. Journal of Women’s Health, 2019;28(2): 135–142. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2018.7178

Garland EL, Geschwind N, Peeters F, Wichers M. Mindfulness training promotes upward spirals of positive affect and cognition: multilevel and autoregressive latent trajectory modeling analyses. Frontiers in Psychology, 2015;6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00015

Spence JT, Helmreich R, Stapp J. Personal Attributes Questionnaire. 2012. https://doi.org/10.1037/t02466-000 [Accessed 26th May 2025].

Hayes AF. The PROCESS macro for SPSS. SAS and R.; 2025.

Kane L, Ashbaugh AR. Simple and parallel mediation: {A} tutorial exploring anxiety sensitivity, sensation seeking, and gender. The Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 2017;13(3): 148–165. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.13.3.p148

Cohen J. A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 1992;112(1): 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155

Andersen MB, Williams JM. Gender Role and Sport Competition Anxiety: A Re-examination. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 1987;58(1): 52–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.1987.10605420

Wittig AF. Sport competition anxiety and sex role. Sex Roles, 1984;10(5–6): 469–473. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287563

Jones G, Swain A, Cale A. Genier Differences in Precompetition Temporal Fattening ami Antecedents of Anxiety and Self-Confidence. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 1991;13(1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.13.1.1

Arcand M, Bilodeau-Houle A, Juster RP, Marin MF. Sex and gender role differences on stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms in response to the COVID-19 pandemic over time. Frontiers in Psychology, 2023;14: 1166154. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1166154

Palapattu AG, Kingery JN, Ginsburg GS. Gender Role Orientation and Anxiety Symptoms Among African American Adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 2006;34(3): 423–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-006-9023-1

Scheepers D, Keller J. On the physiology of flow: Bridging flow theory with the biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 2022;182: 119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.10.007

Koenig J, Thayer JF. Sex differences in healthy human heart rate variability: A meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 2016;64: 288–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.007

Van Anders SM. Beyond masculinity: Testosterone, gender/sex, and human social behavior in a comparative context. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 2013;34(3): 198–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.07.001

Carpenter JK, Conroy K, Gomez AF, Curren LC, Hofmann SG. The relationship between trait mindfulness and affective symptoms: A meta-analysis of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). Clinical Psychology Review, 2019;74: 101785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.101785

Keng SL, Liew KWL. Trait Mindfulness and Self-Compassion as Moderators of the Association Between Gender Nonconformity and Psychological Health. Mindfulness, 2017;8(3): 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-016-0639-0

Schutte NS, Malouff JM. The connection between mindfulness and flow: A meta-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 2023;200: 111871. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2022.111871

Chafos V. The relationship between sex role, mindfulness, perceived stress, anxiety, and flow in team sport female athletes [dissertation]. South Orange (NJ): Seton Hall University; 2021.

Yarnell LM, Neff KD, Davidson OA, Mullarkey M. Gender Differences in Self-Compassion: Examining the Role of Gender Role Orientation. Mindfulness, 2019;10(6): 1136–1152. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-1066-1